Photovoltaic cells have developed according to two distinct methods. The initial operational cells employed a matrix of single crystal silicon appropriately doped to produce a planar p-n junction. An intrinsic electric field established at the p-n junction produces a voltage by directing solar photon produced holes and free electrons in opposite directions. Despite good conversion efficiencies and long-term reliability, widespread energy collection using single-crystal silicon cells is thwarted by the exceptionally high cost of single crystal silicon material and interconnection processing.
A second approach to produce photovoltaic cells is by depositing thin photovoltaic semiconductor films on a supporting substrate. Material requirements are minimized and technologies can be proposed for mass production. The thin film structures can be designed according to doped homojunction technology such as in that involving silicon films, or can employ heterojunction approaches such as those using CdTe or chalcopyrite materials.
Despite significant improvements in individual cell conversion efficiencies for both single crystal and thin film approaches, photovoltaic energy collection has been generally restricted to applications having low power requirements. One factor impeding development of bulk power systems is the problem of economically collecting the energy from an extensive collection surface. Photovoltaic cells can be described as high current, low voltage devices. Typically individual cell voltage is less than one volt. The current component is a substantial characteristic of the power generated. Efficient energy collection from an expansive surface must minimize resistive losses associated with the high current characteristic. A way to minimize resistive losses is to reduce the size of individual cells and connect them in series. Thus, voltage is stepped through each cell while current and associated resistive losses are minimized.
It is readily recognized that making effective, durable series connections among multiple small cells can be laborious, difficult and expensive. In order to approach economical mass production of series connected arrays of individual cells, a number of factors must be considered in addition to the type of photovoltaic materials chosen. These include the substrate employed and the process envisioned. Since thin films can be deposited over expansive areas, thin film technologies offer additional opportunities for mass production of interconnected arrays compared to inherently small, discrete single crystal silicon cells. Thus a number of U.S. Patents have issued proposing designs and processes to achieve series interconnections among the thin film photovoltaic cells. Many of these technologies comprise deposition of photovoltaic thin films on glass substrates followed by scribing to form smaller area individual cells. Multiple steps then follow to electrically connect the individual cells in series array. Examples of these proposed processes are presented in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,443,651, 4,724,011, and 4,769,086 to Swartz, Turner et al. and Tanner et al. respectively. While expanding the opportunities for mass production of interconnected cell arrays compared with single crystal silicon approaches, glass substrates must inherently be processed on an individual batch basis.
More recently, developers have explored depositing wide area films using continuous roll-to-roll processing. This technology generally involves depositing thin films of photovoltaic material onto a continuously moving web. However, a challenge still remains regarding subdividing the expansive films into individual cells followed by interconnecting into a series connected array. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,965,655 to Grimmer et. al. and U.S. Pat. No. 4,697,041 to Okamiwa teach processes requiring expensive laser scribing and interconnections achieved with laser heat staking. In addition, these two references teach a substrate of thin vacuum deposited metal on films of relatively expensive polymers. The electrical resistance of thin vacuum metallized layers significantly limits the active area of the individual interconnected cells.
It has become well known in the art that the efficiencies of certain promising thin film photovoltaic junctions can be substantially increased by high temperature treatments. These treatments involve temperatures at which even the most heat resistant plastics suffer rapid deterioration, thereby requiring either ceramic, glass, or metal substrates to support the thin film junctions. Use of a glass or ceramic substrates generally restricts one to batch processing and handling difficulty. Use of a metal foil as a substrate allows continuous roll-to-roll processing. However, despite the fact that use of a metal foil allows high temperature processing in roll-to-roll fashion, the subsequent interconnection of individual cells effectively in an interconnected array has proven difficult, in part because the metal foil substrate is electrically conducting.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,746,618 to Nath et al. teaches a design and process to achieve interconnected arrays using roll-to-roll processing of a metal web substrate such as stainless steel. The process includes multiple operations of cutting, selective deposition, and riveting. These operations add considerably to the final interconnected array cost.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,385,848 to Grimmer teaches roll-to-roll methods to achieve integrated series connections of adjacent thin film photovoltaic cells supported on an electrically conductive metal substrate. The process includes mechanical or chemical etch removal of a portion of the photovoltaic semiconductor and transparent top electrode to expose a portion of the electrically conductive metal substrate. The exposed metal serves as a contact area for interconnecting adjacent cells. These material removal techniques are troublesome for a number of reasons. First, many of the chemical elements involved in the best photovoltaic semiconductors are expensive and environmentally unfriendly. This removal subsequent to controlled deposition involves containment, dust and dirt collection and disposal, and possible cell contamination. This is not only wasteful but considerably adds to expense. Secondly, the removal processes are difficult to control dimensionally. Thus a significant amount of the valuable photovoltaic semiconductor is lost to the removal process. Ultimate module efficiencies are further compromised in that the spacing between adjacent cells grows, thereby reducing the effective active collector area for a given module area.
Thus there remains a need for an inexpensive manufacturing process which allows high heat treatment for thin film photovoltaic junctions while also offering unique means to achieve effective integrated series connections.
A further unsolved problem which has thwarted production of expansive surface photovoltaic modules is that of collecting the photogenerated current from the top, light incident surface. Transparent conductive oxide (TCO) layers have been employed as a top surface electrode. However, these TCO layers are relatively resistive compared to pure metals. This fact forces individual cell widths to be reduced in order to prevent unacceptable resistive power losses. As cell widths decrease, the width of the area between individual cells (interconnect area) should also decrease so that the relative portion of inactive surface of the interconnect area does not become excessive. Typical cell widths of one centimeter are often taught in the art. These small cell widths demand very fine interconnect area widths, which dictate delicate and sensitive techniques to be used to electrically connect the top TCO surface of one cell to the bottom electrode of an adjacent series connected cell. Furthermore, achieving good stable ohmic contact to the TCO cell surface has proven difficult, especially when one employs those sensitive techniques available when using the TCO only as the top collector electrode.
The problem of collecting photovoltaic generated current from the top light impinging surface of a photovoltaic cell has been addressed in a number of ways, none entirely successful.
In a somewhat removed segment of technology, a number of electrically conductive fillers have been used to produce electrically conductive polymeric materials. This technology generally involves mixing of the conductive filler into the polymer resin prior to fabrication of the material into its final shape. Conductive fillers typically consist of high aspect ratio particles such as metal fibers, metal flakes, or highly structured carbon blacks, with the choice based on a number of cost/performance considerations.
Electrically conductive resins have been used as bulk thermoplastic compositions, or formulated into paints. Their development has been spurred in large part by electromagnetic radiation shielding and static discharge requirements for plastic components used in the electronics industry. Other known applications include resistive heating fibers and battery components.
In yet another separate technological segment, electroplating on plastic substrates has been employed to achieve decorative effects on items such as knobs, cosmetic closures, faucets, and automotive trim. ABS (acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene) plastic dominates as the substrate of choice for most applications because of a blend of mechanical and process properties and ability to be uniformly etched. The overall plating process comprises many steps. First, the plastic substrate is chemically etched to microscopically roughen the surface. This is followed by depositing an initial metal layer by chemical reduction. This initial metal layer is normally copper or nickel of thickness typically one-half micrometer. The object is then electroplated with metals such as bright nickel and chromium to achieve the desired thickness and decorative effects. The process is very sensitive to processing variables used to fabricate the plastic substrate, limiting applications to carefully molded parts and designs. In addition, the many steps employing harsh chemicals make the process intrinsically costly and environmentally difficult. Finally, the sensitivity of ABS plastic to liquid hydrocarbons has prevented certain applications. The conventional technology for electroplating on plastic (etching, chemical reduction, electroplating) has been extensively documented and discussed in the public and commercial literature. See, for example, Saubestre, Transactions of the Institute of Metal Finishing, 1969, Vol. 47., or Arcilesi et al., Products Finishing, March 1984.
Many attempts have been made to simplify the process of electroplating on plastic substrates. Some involve special chemical techniques to produce an electrically conductive film on the surface. Typical examples of this approach are taught by U.S. Pat. No. 3,523,875 to Minklei, U.S. Pat. No. 3,682,786 to Brown et. al., and U.S. Pat. No. 3,619,382 to Lupinski. The electrically conductive film produced was then electroplated.
Another approach proposed to simplify electroplating of plastic substrates is incorporation of electrically conductive fillers into the resin to produce an electrically conductive plastic. The electrically conductive resin is then electroplated. Examples of this approach are the teachings of Adelman in U.S. Pat. No. 4,038,042 and Luch in U.S. Pat. No. 3,865,699. Adelman taught incorporation of conductive carbon black into a polymeric matrix to achieve electrical conductivity required for electroplating. The substrate was pre-etched to achieve adhesion of the subsequently electrodeposited metal. Luch taught incorporation of small amounts of sulfur into polymer-based compounds filled with conductive carbon black. The sulfur was shown to have two advantages. First, it participated in formation of a chemical bond between the polymer-based substrate and an initial Group VIII based metal electrodeposit. Second, the sulfur increased lateral growth of the Group VIII based metal electrodeposit over the surface of the substrate.
Since the polymer-based compositions taught by Luch could be electroplated directly without any pretreatments, they could be accurately defined as directly electroplateable resins (DER). Directly electroplateable resins, (DER), are characterized by the following features.
(a) having a polymer matrix; PA1 (b) presence of carbon black in amounts sufficient for the overall composition to have an electrical volume resistivity of less than 1000 ohm-cm., e.g., 100 ohm-cm., 10 ohm-cm., 1 ohm-cm.; PA1 (c) presence of sulfur (including any sulfur provided by sulfur donors) in amounts greater than about 0.1% by weight of the overall polymer-carbon-sulfur composition; and PA1 (d) presence of the polymer, carbon and sulfur in said directly electroplateable composition of matter in cooperative amounts required to achieve direct, uniform, rapid and adherent coverage of said composition of matter with an electrodeposited Group VIII metal or Group VIII metal-based alloy.
The minimum workable level of carbon black required to achieve electrical resistivities less than 1000 ohm-cm. appears to be about 8 weight percent based on the weight of polymer plus carbon black.
Polymers such as polyvinyls, polyolefins, polystyrenes, elastomers, polyamides, and polyesters are suitable for a DER matrix, the choice generally being dictated by the physical properties required.
In order to eliminate ambiguity in terminology of the present specification and claims, the following definitions are supplied.
"Metal-based" refers to a material having metallic properties comprising one or more elements, at least one of which is an elemental metal. "Metal-based alloy" refers to a substance having metallic properties and being composed of two or more elements of which at least one is an elemental metal. "Polymer-based" refers to a substance composed, by volume, of 50 percent or more hydrocarbon polymer.
"Group VIII-based" refers to a metal (including alloys) containing, by weight, 50% to 100% metal from Group VIII of the Periodic Table of Elements.
It is important to note that electrical conductivity alone is insufficient to permit a plastic substrate to be directly electroplated. The plastic surface must be electrically conductive on a microscopic scale. For example, simply loading a small volume percentage of metal fibers may impart conductivity on a scale suitable for electromagnetic radiation shielding, but the fiber separation would likely prevent uniform direct electroplating. In addition, many conductive thermoplastic materials form a non-conductive surface skin during fabrication, effectively eliminating the surface conductivity required for direct electroplating.
Objects of the Invention
An object of the invention is to eliminate the deficiencies in the prior art methods of producing expansive area, series interconnected photovoltaic arrays. A further object of the present invention is to provide improved substrates to achieve series interconnections among expansive thin film cells. A further object of the invention is to permit inexpensive production of high efficiency, heat treated thin film photovoltaic cells while simultaneously permitting the use of polymer based substrate materials and associated processing to effectively interconnect those cells. A further object of the present invention is to provide improved processes whereby expansive area, series interconnected photovoltaic arrays can be economically mass produced.
A further object of the invention is to provide improved processes and structures for supplying current collector grids.
Other objects and advantages will become apparent in light of the following description taken in conjunction with the drawings and embodiments.